Agents' risk aversion is a long-standing source of concern in principal-agent theory and in the practice of organizations. While standard principal-agent theory assumes that principals adequately infer conclusions from noisy outcomes, behavioral research suggests that their inferences are affected by outcome bias. We take a further theoretical step, and propose that when an agent knows that the principal's evaluation of the agent's decision will be based on outcome knowledge, the agent expects the principal to be overly affected by the outcome, rather than by the merit of the choice. As a result, the agent seeks to minimize the likelihood of an adverse outcome, leading to risk aversion. The results of three laboratory experiments support this hypothesis, suggesting that under outcome-knowledge-based principal-agent relationships, agents anticipate the effect of outcome bias on principals, and adjust their ex-ante behavior by opting for less risky alternatives, a phenomenon we call foresighted outcome effect.
The incorporation of spacers between graphene sheets has been investigated as an effective method to improve the electrochemical performance of graphene papers (GPs) for supercapacitors. Here, we report the design of free-standing GP@NiO and GP@Ni hybrid GPs in which NiO nanoclusters and Ni nanoparticles are encapsulated into graphene sheets through electrostatic assembly and subsequent vacuum filtration. The encapsulated NiO nanoclusters and Ni nanoparticles can mitigate the restacking of graphene sheets, providing sufficient spaces for high-speed ion diffusion and electron transport. In addition, the spacers strongly bind to graphene sheets, which can efficiently improve the electrochemical stability. Therefore, at a current density of 0.5 Ag-1, the GP@NiO and GP@Ni electrodes exhibit higher specific capacitances of 306.9 and 246.1 Fg(-1) than the GP electrode (185.7 Fg(-1)). The GP@NiO and GP@Ni electrodes exhibit capacitance retention of 98.7% and 95.6% after 10000 cycles, demonstrating an outstanding cycling stability. Additionally, the GP@NiO vertical bar GP@Ni delivers excellent cycling stability (93.7% after 10000 cycles) and high energy density. These free-standing encapsulated hybrid GPs have great potential as electrode for high-performance supercapacitors.
The article explores the political mobilization of the Ethiopian minority of Israel. Utilizing the 2015 Ethiopian protests as illustrative of larger political trends undergone by the minority, we utilize the tools of social movement theory to unpack the two-month long protest wave. Specifically, we address why the protests occurred, how they developed, and where and when they emerged, by exploring the grievances framing the protests, the collective’s mobilizing infrastructure, and processes of local and international diffusion and emulation. The results highlight the ongoing and emerging trends and developments within the Ethiopian minority, situating the events within a larger process of politicization.
The book examines two of the most prominent developments in contemporary democratic politics, party change and political personalization, and the relationship between them. It presents a broad-brush, cross-national comparison of these phenomena that covers around fifty years in twenty-six countries through the use of more than twenty indicators. It demonstrates that, behind a general trend of decline of political parties, there is much variance among countries. In some, party decline is moderate or even small, which may point to adaptation to the changing environments these parties operate in. In others, parties sharply decline. Most cases fall between these two poles. A clear general trend of personalization in politics is identified, but there are large differences among countries in its magnitude and manifestations. Surprisingly, the online world seems to supply parties with an opportunity to revive. When parties decline, personalization increases. Yet these are far from being perf
