Portable sensing, in which lightweight mobile sensors are used to measure stimuli, events, and human behavior, is a new and disruptive data collection paradigm. It has several methodological advantages compared to traditional methods and is suitable for investigating the dynamism of increasingly mobile and urban societies. In this article, we discuss the motivations behind the use of portable sensing and reflect upon the advances, limitations, and future of the field. Although portable sensing is still in its infancy, we foresee that its utilization will grow in the coming years. For portable sensing to become a prevalent and legitimate methodological approach, it is essential to have conceptually strong study designs that are grounded in suitable ethical procedures and comply with data protection regulations.

Recent approaches in the research on walkable environments and wellbeing go beyond correlational analysis to consider the specific characteristics of individuals and their interaction with the immediate environment. Accordingly, a need has been accentuated for new human-centered methods to improve our understanding of the mechanisms underlying environmental effects on walking and consequently on wellbeing. Immersive virtual environments (IVEs) were suggested as a potential method that can advance this type of research as they offer a unique combination between controlled experimental environments that allow drawing causal conclusions and a high level of environmental realism that supports ecological validity. The current study pilot tested a walking simulator with additional sensor technologies, including biosensors, eye tracking and gait sensors. Results found IVEs to facilitate extremely high tempo-spatial-resolution measurement of physical walking parameters (e.g., speed, number of gaits) along with walking experience and wellbeing (e.g., electrodermal activity, heartrate). This level of resolution is useful in linking specific environmental stimuli to the psychophysiological and behavioral reactions, which cannot be obtained in real-world and self-report research designs. A set of guidelines for implementing IVE technology for research is suggested in order to standardize its use and allow new researchers to engage with this emerging field of research.

Advanced tracking technologies have facilitated the tracking of tourists' movement with high levels of spatial resolution, allowing for the exploration of factors that influence dispersal. However, the degree to which different analytical indices impact the results that they generate, remains under-researched. This study uses a high tempo-spatial resolution data set of location tracking information that was collected in the island state of Tasmania, Australia, using a mobile phone research application. It compares the results that emerge when four different analytical indicators are used to quantify tourist dispersal. The results improve understandings of the role that analytical indicators play in assessing dispersal, along with the underlying factors that influence tourists' dispersal at the state scale.

Happiness and subjective experiences receive growing attention in the business and economic literature as a central force that determines consumer satisfaction. This process is supported, to a great deal, by technological developments in the form of portable and ubiquitous information, communication, and location technologies. In this article, we argue that the interaction of tourists with the destination is becoming mediated through technological apparatuses and thus products that are being consumed are becoming increasingly personalized. We call for a paradigmatic shift in the analysis of tourist experience and destination competitiveness which should build on the following four elements: (1) utilizing advanced methodological tools that rely on mobile and sensor technologies, (2) adopting disaggregated research approach toward experiences, (3) employing high spatial resolution analysis to allow a precise investigation of content- and place-specific experiences, and (4) avoiding the traditional differentiation between destinations as suppliers of attractions and tourists as passive consumers.

The article discusses the feasibility and benefits of using immersive virtual environments (IVEs) to gauge the environmental preferences of individuals. The discussion is based on the results of a stated preference conjoint experiment employed within an IVE. In the experiment, participants were asked to rate and rank their cycling experience during and after they had cycled a few virtual routes with changing environmental characteristics. Participants repeated the experiment a week later to allow the examination of the test–retest reliability of the method. Presence level—namely the extent to which one has an actual sense of being in the simulated world—was computed using the ITC–SOPI questionnaire. The scores were compared with an equivalent, more traditional, still images conjoint task that was administrated to a control group. Presence level was significantly higher in the IVE compared to the still images experiment. This finding supports the notion that IVEs may yield greater external validity due to their higher level of realism. Relatively low test–retest reliability scores between the two IVE experiment rounds were obtained. This might be explained by the participants' low familiarity with IVEs, which in the first round diverted their attention from the conjoint task itself. In contrast, the test–retest scores of post-IVE evaluations, which are considered more cognitive in their nature, were satisfactory. Implications of the experiments and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Advances in commercial wearable devices are increasingly facilitating the collection and analysis of everyday physiological data. This article discusses the theoretical and practical aspects of using such ambulatory devices for the detection of episodic changes in physiological signals as a marker for mental state in outdoor environments. A pilot study was conducted to evaluate the feasibility of using commercial wearables in combination with location tracking technologies. The study measured physiological signals for fifteen participants, including heart rate, heart rate variability, and skin conductance. Participants? signals were recorded during an outdoor walk that was tracked using a Global Positioning System logger. The walk was designed to pass through various types of environments including green, blue, and urban spaces, as well as a more stressful road crossing. The data that were obtained were used to demonstrate how biosensor information can be contextualized and enriched using location information. Significant episodic changes in physiological signals under real-world conditions were detectable in the stressful road crossing but not in the other types of environments. The article concludes that despite challenges and limitations of current off-the-shelf wearables, the utilization of these devices offers novel opportunities for evaluating episodic changes in physiological signals as a marker for mental state during everyday activities including in outdoor environments. Key Words: electrodermal activity, GPS, mental state, stress, wearable.

Reduced mobility is associated with decrease in both hedonic and eudemonic aspects of well-being. The current chapter investigates the potential of employing smartphone location tracking to investigate the association between deteriorating mobility and wellbeing among individuals with chronic disease during daily activity. The locations of 36 patients with sickle cell disease, a genetic disorder that affects the production of hemoglobin, were tracked continuously every 2 min using participants' smartphones to allow the calculation of movement parameters such as walking and driving distance and speed. The results of the study were mixed. (1) While smartphone tracking could be performed continuously for long periods of time for some patients (e.g. more than 100 days of tacking), data quality was not consistent for other patients. Twenty-one out the 36 patients enrolled had poor or no spatial information. Based on the results of other studies, we suspect that this is mainly due to motivational factors (e.g. participants did not keep the phone's location services on) and not a fault of the hardware. We conclude that future studies should implement some incentive or feedback mechanism that will enhance motivation of participants. (2) The association between daily mobility parameters and physical and mental wellbeing (i.e. depression, pain level) were in the expected direction, but results were not significant for the most part. While this could be attributed to the small sample of the study, it might also be the case that other indicators which better represent the tempo-spatial context of human behavior should be considered in the future.

In today's developed world, the ability of a city to generate good experiences for its residents and visitors is a main aspect of its attractiveness. A good city is considered to be one in which people feel secure, relaxed, and happy. This article explores the factors that influence the subjective momentary experiences of individuals in the city, while focusing on the impact of spatial variables on these experiences; 91 students living in Jerusalem, Israel, were asked to repeatedly self-report four dimensions of episodic experience, namely, sense of security, happiness, annoyance, and sense of comfort. Reports were sent in real time using a smartphone application during an eight-month period. The results, based on over 5000 experience samples, indicate that subjective momentary experiences, particularly sense of comfort and sense of security, are highly influenced by situational variables and environmental characteristics including type of activity and environment, place characteristics, and company. Surp...

ABSTRACT Nowadays, a growing number of researchers are investigating subjective attitudes of people toward their environment with ever-increasing spatial and temporal resolutions. It seems that researchers' interest in daily experiences is not merely a passing research fad, but rather that individuals in current societies find more interest in their own momentary experiences. They talk about their affective states, they spend considerable portions of their income on intangible experiences, and they instantly share personal ‘moments' through various online social media platforms. These trends are even more apparent in the tourism and leisure industries which aim to generate positive experiences among individuals. This research note points out new directions in the exploration of experiences during tourism and leisure activities. It discusses a new relevant concept, subjective momentary experiences on one hand and presents novel methodological opportunities on the other. In order to portray these new trends,...

Abstract In this article, we illustrate the importance of time in understanding theme park visitor activity patterns. The study that is described here made use of the GPS (Global Positioning System) technology to track and record the time?space trajectories of visitors at the PortAventura theme park in Catalonia, Spain. The findings suggest that visitors to theme parks do demonstrate distinct diurnal and intradiurnal mass behavior patterns or rhythms of activity. The investigation of temporal activity patterns holds two main advantages: the first is that compared with spatial activity patterns, it is more straightforward to aggregate, present, and compare temporal patterns; the second is that the external validity of temporal activity patterns is generally higher than that of spatial activity patterns. That is to say that temporal activity patterns are more likely to repeat themselves in other environments. Practical, theoretical, and methodological insights that can be relevant to both researchers and site managers are discussed. Abstract In this article, we illustrate the importance of time in understanding theme park visitor activity patterns. The study that is described here made use of the GPS (Global Positioning System) technology to track and record the time?space trajectories of visitors at the PortAventura theme park in Catalonia, Spain. The findings suggest that visitors to theme parks do demonstrate distinct diurnal and intradiurnal mass behavior patterns or rhythms of activity. The investigation of temporal activity patterns holds two main advantages: the first is that compared with spatial activity patterns, it is more straightforward to aggregate, present, and compare temporal patterns; the second is that the external validity of temporal activity patterns is generally higher than that of spatial activity patterns. That is to say that temporal activity patterns are more likely to repeat themselves in other environments. Practical, theoretical, and methodological insights that can be relevant to both researchers and site managers are discussed.

Abstract This study uses global positioning systems (GPS) technology to compare and contrast the behaviour patterns of first-time and repeat visitors to Hong Kong. The use of GPS recorders, coupled with an analysis using Geographical Information System (GIS) software produces highly accurate, fine-grained information concerning the spatial and time?space patterns of the visitors. The study findings build on existing knowledge that first-timers tend to travel more widely throughout the destination while repeat visitors tend to confine their actions to a smaller number of locations. However, the data also revealed that first-timers and repeaters spend different amounts of time at the same attractions and visit during different times of the day. First-time visitors also tend to make one long, extended day trip from the hotel, while repeaters tend to make a number of shorter forays, returning to the hotel intermittently during the day. Abstract This study uses global positioning systems (GPS) technology to compare and contrast the behaviour patterns of first-time and repeat visitors to Hong Kong. The use of GPS recorders, coupled with an analysis using Geographical Information System (GIS) software produces highly accurate, fine-grained information concerning the spatial and time?space patterns of the visitors. The study findings build on existing knowledge that first-timers tend to travel more widely throughout the destination while repeat visitors tend to confine their actions to a smaller number of locations. However, the data also revealed that first-timers and repeaters spend different amounts of time at the same attractions and visit during different times of the day. First-time visitors also tend to make one long, extended day trip from the hotel, while repeaters tend to make a number of shorter forays, returning to the hotel intermittently during the day.

Study Design. Pilot study. Objective. To examine whether surgical outcomes can be assessed objectively by advanced tracking technology, based on Global Posi-tioning Systems (GPS). Summary of Background Data. Outcome studies are the com-monest way to assess the results of surgical procedures. The suc-cess of these efforts is impeded by a number of factors, including the lack of valid outcome measures, diffi culty in assessing changes in patients' expectations (response shift) and confounding effects of secondary gains. Methods. The measurement of walking speed, distances, and num-ber of walking events per day, claudication index (maximal walking distance), characteristics during motorized trips, and the amount of time spent outdoors were monitored in 2 patients undergoing spine surgery for several weeks using advanced tracking technologies. Results. In 1 patient, all parameters increased progressively from the time of surgery to the end of the recording period. These fi ndings were consistent with her recovery from surgery. In a second patient, tracking showed the patient's diffi culty in mobilizing, leading to the diagnosis of another orthopedic problem, and to total hip replacement surgery. Conclusion. The technology presented in this pilot appears to be useful in understanding a patient's level and breathe of activity. These data will assist in better understanding the limitations imposed by specifi c musculoskeletal pathology and in monitoring perioperative function and complications and their related causes. Spatial data may indirectly refl ect a patient's social and mental conditions. This interdisciplinary pilot may lead to the development of valid outcome measures for a range of medical conditions. Studies comparing ques-tionnaires to this new outcome measure may shed light on issues like response shifts and secondary gain. Norms and clusters of spatial behaviors in different pathologies may enable better patient selection for medical, mental, and surgical interventions. T he outcome of surgery can be assessed in various ways. Data can be obtained from various persons—the patient, the treating physician, or an independent ob-server 1 and using various methods (questionnaires, observa-tions, measures of physical performance, radiographs). The quality of data obtained by these methods varies. Ideally, an outcome tool should be valid, simple, quick, reliable, reproducible, and sensitive to change. 2 One of the most popular ways of measuring outcomes is through the use of self administered questionnaires. They include the following 3 major types: general health, 3 disease specifi c, 4 and patient satisfaction. Many of the commonly used outcome question-naires in orthopedic surgery (for example, that of Harris) 5 have never been validated. Moreover, although they may be reliable, patients' self assessments do not necessarily refl ect their actual condition. For example, in 1 study, patients with intermittent claudication due to lumbar spinal canal stenosis were asked to assess their walking distances. Although self-reports yielded a wide range of walking abilities, most pa-tients were able to walk the same distance of about 200 m. This raises questions about the validity of patient self-report questionnaires in this area. 6 A response shift is a psychological change in one's perception of the quality of life following a change in health status. The idea goes back to the days of Plato. 7 This phenomenon initially was recognized in patients with terminal diseases who, despite a worsening of the physical condition, did not necessarily report deterioration in quality of life—a positive response shift. 8 Response shift was recently studied in total knee arthroplasty—a negative response shift, 9,10 and the basis for its study in spine surgery has been described, 11 with a review of current data in orthopedic and spine surgery published recently. 12 This psychological process, resulting in a change in the expectations of people when com-pares between the pre-and the postoperative period, leads to

A growing body of research is focusing on tourism in urban destinations. However, there has been no research examining the impact of hotel location on subsequent tourist behaviour. This article fills this gap both theoretically and empirically, through an analysis of the time-space activity of tourists staying at four hotels in different areas of Hong Kong. The movements of 557 tourists' day-trips were tracked using GPS loggers. The study concluded that hotel location has a profound impact on tourist movements, with a large share of the total tourist time budget spent in the immediate vicinity of the hotel. Further, the study illustrated the impact of geomorphic barriers on tourist movements. The findings have important implications at both a destination and enterprise level.